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  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Hezbollah-Israel War Is Becoming Inevitable, and the United States May Not Prevent It

    Apr 10, 2024Patricia Karam

    Patricia Karam evaluates the possibility of a war between Hezbollah and Israel that would be a major escalation in the Middle East as the United States tries t…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonJustice, Equality, and Human Rights

    The Limits of Justice in Lebanon—and What It Means for the Future of the Country

    Feb 28, 2024Patricia Karam

    Three years ago this month, the assassination of Lokman Slim—public intellectual, human rights defender, writer and publisher, and outspoken critic of Hezbolla…

  • Viewpoint
    LebanonConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Continuing Skirmishes but No Hezbollah-Israel War

    Jan 25, 2024Imad K. Harb

    Daily and intense skirmishes between Israeli forces and Hezbollah and its allies across the Blue Line—in reference to the border drawn by the United Nations fo…

  • Policy Analysis
    IranConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Iran Between Managing Allies and Modulating Its Deterrence

    Jan 25, 2024Daniel Brumberg

    This is a bad time for Iran to become embroiled in an expanding regional war that pits the Islamic Republic and its allies in Iraq, Lebanon, and Yemen against …

  • Viewpoint
    Palestine/IsraelConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Arouri’s Assassination Will Achieve Nothing

    Jan 3, 2024Imad K. Harb

    In its pursuit of Hamas leaders, an Israeli drone has assassinated Saleh al-Arouri, the Deputy Chairman of Hamas’s Political Bureau, a senior official in the o…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Lebanon’s Political Forces Oppose a War with Israel

    Dec 20, 2023Patricia Karam

    With a heightened risk of the Gaza war spilling over into Lebanon, currently mired in acute political, economic, and social crises, the country’s politicians v…

  • Viewpoint
    LebanonConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Hezbollah Reluctantly Awaits Israel’s Decision on War

    Nov 17, 2023Imad K. Harb

    The frontline on the Lebanese-Israeli border continues to witness the real skirmishes of an undeclared war between Israel and Hezbollah. Reciprocal attacks bet…

  • Viewpoint
    Palestine/IsraelConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Nasrallah Steers Clear of War

    Nov 3, 2023Imad K. Harb

    Where is Hezbollah and its General Secretary Hassan Nasrallah? This was a natural refrain over almost the last four weeks, voiced by many observers and partisa…

  • Viewpoint
    Palestine/IsraelConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    The Unlikelihood of a Hezbollah-Israel War

    Oct 13, 2023Imad K. Harb

    As Israel turns to punish the Gaza Strip and its people for the Hamas attack on October 7, speculation arises as to whether the “Al-Aqsa Flood” operation will …

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    The Threat of Renewed Sectarian Violence in Lebanon

    Sep 5, 2023Patricia Karam

    Two people were killed on August 9 in the village of Kahaleh in central Lebanon, in one of the deadliest shootouts since the bloody 2021 clashes in the Tayoune…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonMigrants, Refugees, and IDPs

    The Plight and Politics of Syrian Refugees in Lebanon

    Aug 8, 2023Patricia Karam

    When Syria’s regime was readmitted into the Arab League and its president, Bashar al Assad, rehabilitated after years of ostracism for his brutal crackdown on …

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    The Continuation of Lebanon’s Presidential Debacle

    Jun 21, 2023Patricia Karam

    It should come as no surprise to Lebanese citizens or the international community that the country remains without a president after more than 7 months and 12 …

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonWomen & Gender Issues

    The Harrowing State of Women’s Rights in Lebanon

    May 1, 2023Rola El-Husseini Dean

    The problems facing women in Lebanon today have been further complicated by the financial, economic, and social crises that have been affecting the country sin…

  • Policy Analysis
    The Arab WorldUS Foreign Policy

    US Middle East Policy: The Trump-Biden Doctrine in Action

    Mar 22, 2023Charles W. Dunne

    All US presidents, it seems, need their own foreign policy “doctrine.” President James Monroe famously started the trend in 1823, and many others—Truman, Eisen…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonRegional Relations and Geopolitics

    Lebanon and Syria and the Saudi-Iran Detente

    Mar 21, 2023Imad K. Harb

    The recent China-brokered agreement between Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran is expected to have a de-escalating effect on many issues in the Midd…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    A New Model for Presidential Elections in Lebanon

    Mar 9, 2023Patricia Karam

    It has been four months since former Lebanese President Michel Aoun left office in October 2022, after a presidential term marred by a series of catastrophic e…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Lebanon’s New Opposition MPs Must Work Together for Political Change

    Feb 14, 2023Patricia Karam

    Although the October 2019 protests in Lebanon rallied every sector, class, and gender in a moment of enthusiasm with the expectation of revolutionary change, t…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Beirut Port Explosion: A “Judicial Coup” to Bury the Investigation?

    Feb 9, 2023Halim Shebaya

    There is broad consensus in Lebanon regarding the need to reform the country’s judiciary and to work toward enhancing its independence, as stipulated by both t…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Lebanon’s Politicians Are Incapable of Productive Dialogue

    Jan 12, 2023Halim Shebaya

    Lebanon has now entered the fourth year of its devastating economic crisis and collapse, with no end in sight and no hint regarding the possible launch of a re…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Lebanon Faces a Prolonged Presidential Vacuum

    Nov 29, 2022Imad K. Harb

    Lebanon has experienced a long presidential vacuum three times in its history: from September 1988 to November 1989, from November 2007 to May 2008, and from M…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonEnergy and Economics

    Lebanon Will Not Benefit from Its Maritime Agreement with Israel

    Oct 31, 2022Imad K. Harb

    After ten years of on-again, off-again negotiations, Lebanon and Israel have finally reached what leaders in both countries consider an acceptable deal to dema…

  • Policy Analysis
    SyriaGlobal Health and Health Policy

    The Captagon Problem in Saudi Arabia and Other Gulf States

    Sep 22, 2022Gregory Aftandilian

    Over the past decade, the amphetamine fenethylline, widely known by the brand name Captagon, has increasingly become the drug of choice among the youth in Gulf…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonEnergy and Economics

    Lebanon Struggles to Pick up the Pieces After the Beirut Port Explosion

    Sep 9, 2022Yara M. Asi

    Lebanon’s independence in 1943 formally ended a 23-year French mandate backed by the League of Nations, a period that saw the consolidation of the country’s cu…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonEnergy and Economics

    An Update on the Lebanon-Israel Border Dispute

    Sep 7, 2022Imad K. Harb

    As the summer comes to a close, indirect negotiations to demarcate the maritime border between Lebanon and Israel continue apace. Although US mediator Amos Hoc…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Lebanon’s Upcoming Presidential Race Is Riddled with Uncertainty

    Jul 21, 2022Nabeel A. Khoury

    Amid political chaos, economic collapse, a dearth of public services, and shortages of basic foods and medications, Lebanon is nonetheless slated to hold anoth…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonEnergy and Economics

    Little to Show After Two Years of Tense Lebanese-Israeli Maritime Border Negotiations

    Jul 8, 2022Laury Haytayan

    Lebanon and Israel have frequently been at odds during their nearly two years of negotiations over the two countries’ Mediterranean maritime border, with diffi…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantProtests and Activism

    The Political Transformation of Protest Movements in Iraq and Lebanon

    Jun 24, 2022Zeidon Alkinani

    Despite the limited achievements of Iraq and Lebanon's recently-established protest movements compared to their stated objectives, the movements’ small gains m…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantDemocracy and Governance

    A Preliminary Reading into Lebanon’s Parliamentary Elections

    May 18, 2022Halim Shebaya

    Lebanon’s parliamentary elections, held on May 15, 2022, were the first chance to understand where Lebanese voters stand on a number of important issues since …

  • Viewpoint
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Lebanon’s Voters Would Do Well to Support the Forces of Change

    May 10, 2022Imad K. Harb

    On May 15, resident Lebanese go to the polls to elect a new 128-member parliament to replace the one elected four years ago. Given the right to vote in 2018, e…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Hezbollah Mirrors a Weak State and a Turbulent Region

    Apr 13, 2022Nabeel A. Khoury

    In the eyes of an observant analyst, “While it is customary to characterize Hezbollah as a ‘state within a state,’ it is more accurate now to define it as a ‘s…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonEnergy and Economics

    The Need for an International Development Fund for Lebanon

    Jan 6, 2022Nabeel A. Khoury

    The International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank (WB), European Union (EU), France, and the United States are all trying to help Lebanon out of the economic a…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Politics, Geopolitical Conditions Pushing Lebanon into a Death Spiral

    Dec 22, 2021Imad K. Harb

    Conditions in Lebanon today betray a slide toward the total failure of state institutions amid a precipitous downturn of the country’s economic and social indi…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Saudi Arabia’s Third “Shock and Awe” Move in Lebanon

    Nov 9, 2021Joe Macaron

    On October 29th, Riyadh cut diplomatic ties with Beirut and suspended Lebanon’s imports into Saudi Arabia. These actions were aimed to force the resignation of…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Beirut Port Explosion: The Investigation That Will Shape Lebanon’s Future

    Oct 27, 2021Halim Shebaya

    For a country that is notorious for both a legacy of violence and a culture of impunity surrounding that violence, it is no surprise that the ongoing investiga…

  • Viewpoint
    LebanonIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Lebanon Courts Civil War, Again

    Oct 14, 2021Imad K. Harb

    Once again, Lebanon teeters on the abyss of a civil war, this time over conflicts related to the investigation into the disastrous August 4, 2020 explosion at …

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Foreign Influence in Lebanon and the Third Miqati Premiership

    Oct 13, 2021Joe Macaron

    For the third time in 16 years, Prime Minister Najib Miqati comes to office as a consensus candidate in a country with deep divisions within the Lebanese polit…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonEnergy and Economics

    The Conflicted Role of Lebanon’s Central Bank

    Oct 12, 2021Sabine Kik

    Over the past few decades, public debt, sectarian nepotism, and fixed exchange rates have been three significant challenges to the Lebanese economy; albeit the…

  • Viewpoint
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    No Rest for the Weary: Lebanon’s Miqati Must Hit the Ground Running

    Sep 10, 2021Imad K. Harb

    Najib Miqati, the billionaire tasked over a year ago with forming the Lebanese government, has finally finished putting it together, but not before President M…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonEnergy and Economics

    Lebanon’s Energy Crisis Fuels US-Iran Tensions

    Aug 25, 2021Joe Macaron

    In the midst of an economic collapse and an energy crisis, Lebanon has found itself in a tug of war between the United States and Iran. On August 19, Hezbollah…

  • Viewpoint
    LebanonConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Hezbollah Is Not Interested in a War with Israel

    Aug 11, 2021Imad K. Harb

    As Lebanon reels from seemingly unsolvable political, economic, social, and security crises, an exchange of rocket and artillery fire on August 6th between Hez…

  • Viewpoint
    LebanonIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    A Year after the Beirut Explosion, a Dreaded Civil War in Lebanon

    Aug 3, 2021Imad K. Harb

    Events over the last few days in Lebanon portended a serious escalation in sectarian tensions and a possible widespread resort to arms that could quickly lead …

  • Research Paper
    LebanonIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Youth in Lebanon: Policy Narratives, Attitudes, and Forms of Mobilization

    Jun 17, 2021Mona Harb

    IntroductionAs Lebanon is undergoing one of the worst economic and financial collapses in the world, one that was caused by the deliberate inaction1 of its rul…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Hezbollah in Moscow: Russia Flexes Its Diplomatic Muscles

    Apr 14, 2021Joe Macaron

    In a medium-sized van with no bodyguards, on a rainy March 15, 2021, a Hezbollah delegation quietly walked into the Russian Foreign Ministry building in Moscow…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Lebanon Faces a Civil War, a Prospect of Its Own Making

    Mar 23, 2021Imad K. Harb

    The socioeconomic and political crises gripping Lebanon today are unprecedented in the country’s 100-year history, one that has witnessed intercommunal unrest …

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantDemocracy and Governance

    No Light at the End of Lebanon’s Long and Dark Tunnel

    Mar 3, 2021Joe Macaron

    By all accounts, Lebanon is a desperate case. The severe fiscal crises portend an extended economic depression ahead. The country has been in political paralys…

  • Viewpoint
    LebanonIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    The Assassination of Lebanon’s Lokman Slim

    Feb 4, 2021Imad K. Harb

    Assassination reared its ugly head once again in Lebanon when unknown assailants killed political analyst and activist Lokman Slim in southern Lebanon in the e…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Lebanon Risks Becoming Irrelevant

    Nov 11, 2020Imad K. Harb

    For the third time in the span of a year, Lebanese politicians are trying to go back to the proverbial drawing board. On October 22nd, President Michel Aoun ap…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Prospects of US Mediation in the Lebanon-Israel Border Talks

    Oct 14, 2020Joe Macaron

    On October 14, Lebanon and Israel started the long-awaited US-mediated talks to demarcate their maritime borders under the supervision of the United Nations. T…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonRegional Relations and Geopolitics

    The French Initiative in Lebanon: Endgame and Challenges

    Sep 16, 2020Joe Macaron

    French President Emmanuel Macron has been leading a charm offensive in Lebanon since the August 4th Beirut explosion as Paris seeks to reinvigorate its role in…

  • Viewpoint
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Lebanon Chooses a Prime Minister, Thwarting the Protesters Again

    Aug 31, 2020Imad K. Harb

    Imad K. Harb writes that Lebanon’s new and largely unknown prime minister-designate, Mustafa Adib, is relatively inexperienced in politics. Nevertheless, his c…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonRegional Relations and Geopolitics

    After the Beirut Blast: Hezbollah and Iran Walk a Tricky Line

    Aug 26, 2020Daniel Brumberg

    Daniel Brumberg argues that Hezbollah and Iran are vested in preserving the current political system in Lebanon whose confessional institutions enable the part…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonUS Foreign Policy

    How Can the United States Best Help Lebanon?

    Aug 25, 2020Charles W. Dunne

    With Lebanon in crisis and the United States’ desire to help, Charles W. Dunne writes that Washington’s focus on sidelining Hezbollah and Iran should not under…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    The Beirut Explosion Will Have a Lasting Impact on Lebanon

    Aug 14, 2020Joe Macaron

    Joe Macaron argues that the Beirut explosion and its repercussions will have a profound impact on Lebanon’s future, whatever political scenario emerges followi…

  • Viewpoint
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    The Hezbollah-Aoun Political Process Has Failed in Lebanon

    Aug 11, 2020Imad K. Harb

    Imad K. Harb posits that the resignation of the Lebanese government exposes the failure of the Hezbollah-Aoun political process but opens an opportunity for th…

  • Policy Analysis
    Lebanon

    The Explosions in Beirut and Their Repercussions for Lebanon

    Aug 7, 2020Mary-Jane Deeb Imad K. Harb Patricia Karam Nabeel A. Khoury Jean AbiNader

    The destruction of the Port of Beirut is a profound event that will have long-term consequences for Lebanon and its economy and, most of all, its people. Read …

  • Viewpoint
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Lebanon: A Failed State Explodes

    Aug 6, 2020Imad K. Harb

    Imad K. Harb contends that the failing Lebanese state will only begin to restore its legitimacy when the country’s political elites either step down or alter t…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantRegional Relations and Geopolitics

    Lebanon’s Other Problem: Neutrality in Regional Affairs

    Aug 3, 2020Imad K. Harb

    Examining Lebanon’s traditional neutrality in regional affairs, Imad K. Harb writes that Hezbollah’s push to follow Iran’s policies is placing the country in a…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Hezbollah Cannot Solve Lebanon’s Worsening Conditions

    Jun 10, 2020Imad K. Harb

    Imad K. Harb contends that Hezbollah has not succeeded in helping to repair Lebanon's domestic political and economic problems, has made the country hostage to…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    The Fakhoury Fiasco and US-Lebanese Relations

    Apr 13, 2020Joe Macaron

    The unconventional release of Lebanese-American Amer Fakhoury highlights the extent of Washington’s leverage in Beirut and raises questions about the status of…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Lebanon’s Imminent Collapse: How Can It Be Prevented?

    Mar 3, 2020Imad K. Harb

    The dissolution of confessional politics in Lebanon and the political coalescence of the street opposition to negotiate for social change are key to addressing…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonUS Foreign Policy

    US, Iran Prolong Détente in Lebanon with a Status Quo Cabinet

    Jan 29, 2020Joe Macaron

    Joe Macaron contends that the new Lebanese government of Hassan Diab is a continuation of the old oligarchic status quo and appears to prolong the US-Iran déte…

  • Policy Analysis
    IranRegional Relations and Geopolitics

    The United States and Iran Readjust to New Realities in Iraq and Lebanon

    Dec 18, 2019Joe Macaron

    After 15 years of rivalry in Iraq and Lebanon, the United States and Iran are adjusting their policies based on a new reality of popular uprisings that challen…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonProtests and Activism

    The Lebanese Uprising: No End in Sight for the Current Impasse

    Nov 20, 2019Joe Macaron

    Joe Macaron explains the different factors of the current impasse between the Lebanese ruling political class and the protesters, seeing no end in sight for th…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    The Battle to Defeat Confessional Politics in Lebanon and Beyond

    Nov 11, 2019Daniel Brumberg

    Daniel Brumberg writes that despite demands for radical change, no force or group inside or outside Lebanon can predict what will happen if the country tries t…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    The Catch-22 of Lebanese Reform

    Nov 5, 2019Nabeel A. Khoury

    Nabeel Khoury discusses the Lebanese leadership’s catch-22 dilemma resulting from the influence of entrenched parties and their militias as they confront the l…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    The Lebanon Uprising: Causes and Ramifications

    Oct 24, 2019Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies (ACRPS)

    Lebanon’s protests have been unique and inclusive and are united by a wish to topple the ruling political class and abandon the system of sectarian power-shari…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Radical Reform or Total Chaos for Lebanon?

    Oct 22, 2019Nabeel A. Khoury

    Nabeel Khouri argues that it is clear that radical reform in Lebanon is what stands between a safe and gradual transition to an accountable government, on the …

  • Viewpoint
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Lebanon’s Protests Cannot Be Ignored

    Oct 18, 2019Imad K. Harb

    Imad K. Harb writes that Lebanon’s current protests are a reminder that the Arab Spring is alive and well and that Lebanese politicians have no choice but to h…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Assessing the Latest Conflagrations between Israel and Hezbollah

    Sep 11, 2019Joe Macaron

    The latest conflagrations between Israel and Hezbollah were an attempt to dictate new rules of engagement. Nevertheless, both sides appear to be committed to t…

  • Policy Analysis
    IranIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Trump’s Sanctions on Hezbollah Threaten Lebanon’s Stability

    Jul 30, 2019Nabeel A. Khoury

    Current conditions in the Middle East and American sanctions against Hezbollah could upset the delicate balance of power in Lebanon and potentially lead to an …

  • Policy Analysis
    IranIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    The Symbolism behind the Latest US Sanctions against Hezbollah

    Jul 17, 2019Joe Macaron

    The latest US sanctions against Hezbollah--and their impact on domestic Lebanese politics--are largely symbolic. In reality, the Trump Administration may have …

  • Policy Analysis
    IranInternational Law

    On the Lebanese-Israeli Border, US and Iran Are Negotiating

    Jun 5, 2019Joe Macaron

    A breakthrough in Beirut is helping American mediation in the land and maritime border dispute between Lebanon and Israel, but many obstacles still prevent a q…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Avoiding Punishing Lebanon Because of Hezbollah

    Apr 16, 2019Khaldon Roukie

    The United States continues to ostracize and pressure Hezbollah in Lebanon which is inadvertently helping the party grow and become more influential in the cou…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    The Trickiness of Syria’s Return to the Arab League

    Mar 29, 2019Imad K. Harb

    It is important for Arab states to continue to withhold Syria’s membership until Damascus agrees to a political process that leads to a transition from Assad’s…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Syria’s Demographic Changes Buttress Assad’s Authoritarianism

    Mar 1, 2019Radwan Ziadeh

    The Syrian regime violated international prohibitions on the conduct of war by forcing millions of people to flee their homes in order to spur demographic chan…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Lebanon’s New Government: No Need for Washington to Panic

    Feb 6, 2019Joe Macaron

    Lebanon’s new cabinet is not that different from the previous one. An American overreaction to Hezbollah’s role in it is likely to strengthen the party’s hold.

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonEnergy and Economics

    The Eastern Mediterranean Gas Forum Reinforces Current Regional Dynamics

    Jan 25, 2019Joe Macaron

    The recently announced Eastern Mediterranean Gas Forum is not likely to aid cooperation or economic integration because the policies of its member states mirro…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    The Arab Rehabilitation of the Assad Regime

    Jan 16, 2019Radwan Ziadeh

    Assad will be able to regain his political legitimacy after winning his battle militarily only if he rehabilitates his regime’s standing in the Arab world.

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Cabinet Stalemate in Lebanon May Be Delaying a Political Confrontation

    Sep 24, 2018Joe Macaron

    Four months after Lebanese Prime Minister Saad Hariri was designated to lead a national unity government on May 24, there appears to be no end in sight for the…

  • Policy Analysis
    JordanMigrants, Refugees, and IDPs

    Syrian Refugees in Jordan and Lebanon: The Politics of their Return

    Jun 28, 2018Joe Macaron

    Overwhelmed by their own economic woes, Jordan and Lebanon are employing different tactics to achieve the same objective: to secure the return of Syrian refuge…