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  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Once Again, Lebanon Faces the Ghost of a Political Vacuum

    May 17, 2017Joe Macaron

    Lebanon’s sectarian consensus rule raises questions about the functionality of the country’s political system. An agreement on its new electoral law is needed …

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    The Precariousness of the De-Escalation Zones in Syria

    May 10, 2017Mustafa Gurbuz

    Confusion engulfs the establishment of de-escalation zones in Syria as Russia advocates for them and the Syrian opposition expresses doubt about their efficacy.

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Abbas’s Inconclusive Washington Visit and Netanyahu’s Tactics

    May 9, 2017Yousef Munayyer

    The outcome of President Abbas’s visit to Washington was inconclusive but it was a reminder that President Trump is an unpredictable partner in peace.

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    The Middle East in Trump’s First 100 Days in Office

    May 3, 2017Joe Macaron

    Projecting the image of political stability and steadiness in Washington is paramount for US policy in the Middle East. There is no room for second-guessing th…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    President Abbas Spins the Wheel in Washington

    May 2, 2017Imad K. Harb

    Realities on the ground in the occupied Palestinian territories and an obvious pro-Israel American bias dash any hope for an equitable peace deal from the Trum…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Is Enforced Displacement the New Reality in Syria?

    Apr 28, 2017Radwan Ziadeh

    It is feared that forced displacement of Syrians as a way of protecting vulnerable civilians may result in creating pure sectarian enclaves, making partition e…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantMigrants, Refugees, and IDPs

    Will Erdogan’s Victory Usher Dramatic Changes in Turkish Foreign Policy?

    Apr 25, 2017Mustafa Gurbuz

    Since becoming Turkey’s president in July 2014, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has pursued a protracted campaign to win constitutional changes that would grant him more …

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantDemocracy and Governance

    The Quandary of Bad Governance in the Arab World

    Apr 24, 2017Imad K. Harb

    Polling in the Arab world shows that Arabs in general have little confidence in their civilian institutions and believe that their governments are not doing en…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Israel’s “New” Settlement Policy Ploy

    Apr 21, 2017Yousef Munayyer

    To reach a peace deal between Israelis and Palestinians, President Trump has to press the former to end violations of international law and settlement building.

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Perceptions of ISIL in the Arab World

    Apr 14, 2017Radwan Ziadeh

    Arab autocrats can no longer argue that Arabs are satisfied with authoritarian rule. New social movements have emerged after the Arab Spring advocating for hum…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantDemocracy and Governance

    The Trump Administration’s Complicated Middle East Map

    Apr 12, 2017Charles W. Dunne

    As the 2016 US presidential campaign wound its way through a long string of primaries, fundraisers, and an almost unimaginable marathon of candidate debates, d…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    A Dramatic American Change on Syria, but Will It Be Consequential?

    Apr 7, 2017Imad K. Harb

    As a limited attack on a Syrian military base, the American operation is not likely to rise to the status of being a game changer in Syria.

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    The Outsider Diplomat: Tillerson Strives to Define his Role

    Apr 6, 2017Joe Macaron

    After two months in office, Tillerson is gradually coping in his new job; his success or failure will indeed have a significant impact on US foreign policy in …

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    The Turkey-Russia Rift Heralds an Autonomous Kurdistan in Syria

    Apr 5, 2017Mustafa Gurbuz

    As the Syrian civil war grinds on into a seventh year, a Kurdish autonomous region controlled by the People’s Protection Units becomes more probable in norther…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantJustice, Equality, and Human Rights

    The US at the UN and the Apartheid Report on Palestine

    Mar 29, 2017Yousef Munayyer

    Earlier this month and for the first time in the history of the United Nations, the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA)—a UN institution—is…

  • Policy Analysis
    IraqReligion and Politics

    Why Is the Battle against ISIL not Going Well?

    Mar 28, 2017Radwan Ziadeh

    On March 22nd, the foreign ministers of the Global Coalition to defeat the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) concluded their meeting in Washington, D…

  • Policy Analysis
    IranDemocracy and Governance

    Syria Peace Talks in Geneva: A Road to Nowhere

    Mar 27, 2017Radwan Ziadeh

    On March 3, 2017, the United Nations’ Special Envoy for Syria, Staffan de Mistura, concluded the last round of Syria peace negotiations in Geneva by saying tha…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantJustice, Equality, and Human Rights

    The Difficult Tasks for the Arab League

    Mar 22, 2017Imad K. Harb

    As the Arab League limps through its eighth decade, its problems increase in number and intensity while the Arab state system continues to be burdened with pol…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Lebanon’s Oligarchy Consolidates Control over the Security Establishment

    Mar 22, 2017Joe Macaron

    After an impasse of nearly four years, on March 8 the Lebanese government announced a sectarian quota deal to fill the security establishment's leadership posi…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantInternational Law

    Turkey-Europe Tensions: Where are They Headed?

    Mar 21, 2017Mustafa Gurbuz

    The escalation of tensions between Turkish and Dutch authorities seems to have played well in domestic political calculations in Turkey and the Netherlands. Tu…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantViolent Extremism

    The Arab World after ISIL’s Defeat

    Mar 15, 2017Imad K. Harb Abdulwahab Al-Qassab Radwan Ziadeh Joe Macaron Tamara Kharroub

    Current efforts to defeat the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) will, with time and sustained commitment, eventually lead to the physical destruction…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantDemocracy and Governance

    Turnover: What Are the Implications of Recent and Upcoming Changes in Hamas?

    Mar 15, 2017Yousef Munayyer

    BackgroundSince its establishment in the 1980s, the Palestinian Islamic Resistance Movement, or Hamas, has increasingly become an important player in domestic …

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantDemocracy and Governance

    Why Federalism Is a Bad Idea for Syria

    Mar 13, 2017Radwan Ziadeh

    In the middle of the discussion about transition in Syria, Russia proposed the idea of a federal republic, according to deputy foreign minister Sergei Ryabkov.…

  • Policy Analysis
    IranIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Turkey-Iran Relations: A Sectarian Future?

    Mar 8, 2017Mustafa Gurbuz

    The Syrian war and ensuing crisis in Iraq have put Turkey and Iran in an unprecedented sectarian rivalry. Competition over Iraqi Kurdistan will be a major test…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantJustice, Equality, and Human Rights

    J Street Annual Conference: “Defending Our Values: Fighting for Our Future”

    Mar 8, 2017Roxanne Perugino

    J Street, the liberal left-of-center Jewish pro-peace, pro-Israel organization held its sixth annual conference at the end of February in Washington, DC. Over …

  • Policy Analysis
    IraqConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Regaining Western Mosul: Consequences and Implications

    Mar 2, 2017Abdulwahab Al-Qassab

    img { margin: 5px; padding: 5px;}Since October 2016, the Iraqi government, supported by the US military, has waged one of its most difficult battles t…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonUS Foreign Policy

    The Trump Administration’s Hezbollah Problem

    Mar 2, 2017Imad K. Harb

    As paramilitary organizations go, Lebanon’s Hezbollah has achieved resounding success since its establishment by the revolutionary Iranian regime, which was ne…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantJustice, Equality, and Human Rights

    Netanyahu and Trump Chart New US-Israel Relationship

    Feb 26, 2017Yousef Munayyer

    BackgroundOn February 15, 2017, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and President Donald Trump met in the White House for the first time since America’s …

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantJustice, Equality, and Human Rights

    Receiving Netanyahu, Trump Must Emphasize America’s Interests

    Feb 14, 2017Imad K. Harb

    Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu comes to Washington this week to officially reset US-Israeli relations after the chill of the last few years of the Obama Adm…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantJustice, Equality, and Human Rights

    Netanyahu Unrestrained: The Trump Effect on Israeli Politics

    Feb 3, 2017Yousef Munayyer

    BackgroundSince 2009, there have been two constants in the American-Israeli relationship: Barack Obama was President of the United States and Benjamin Netanyah…

  • Policy Analysis
    JordanSecurity and Defense

    Jordan’s King Abdallah in Washington: ISIL and Jerusalem

    Feb 1, 2017Joe Macaron

    In what was described as a working visit, Jordan’s King Abdullah II arrived on January 30, 2017, and became the first Arab leader to come to Washington since t…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    A World Between bin Laden and Breivik: Supremacist Ideologies Shaping the 21st Century

    Jan 26, 2017Yousef Munayyer

    From Austria, Hungary, Poland, Switzerland, and elsewhere on the European continent, right-wing political parties are on the rise. Nationalism, protectionism, …

  • Policy Analysis
    IraqDemocracy and Governance

    Iraqi Kurdistan’s Bid for Independence: Challenges and Prospects

    Jan 26, 2017Mustafa Gurbuz

    Masoud Barzani, the leader of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in Iraqi Kurdistan, has expressed his expectation for “a big change” in US policy under P…

  • Policy Analysis
    JordanConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Forget Paris. It Won’t be Hard

    Jan 25, 2017Yousef Munayyer

    The Paris Peace Conference of January 15, 2017, barely amounted to a singular blip on radar. Some 70 countries participated in what was among the largest inter…

  • Policy Analysis
    IraqUS Foreign Policy

    Syria and Iraq in the Age of Trump: Challenges to American Interests

    Jan 25, 2017Imad K. Harb

    Now that the Trump Administration has taken over the reins of American diplomatic and military power, questions arise about how it intends to preserve America’…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    Aoun in Riyadh: A Test for Lebanon’s Foreign Policy

    Jan 25, 2017Joe Macaron

    In November 2014, General Michel Aoun told the Lebanese daily newspaper, As-Safir, that the late Saudi foreign minister Saud al-Faisal was behind a veto to ele…

  • Policy Analysis
    IraqIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Turkish-Iraqi Relations: Old Trends and Future Possibilities

    Jan 17, 2017Abdulwahab Al-Qassab

    Relations between Iraq and Turkey have been cordial and cautious since Iraq became independent of Ottoman suzerainty after WWI, when British forces invaded and…

  • Policy Analysis
    Palestine/IsraelUS Foreign Policy

    The Battle for DNC Chair: Palestine and Democratic Party Politics after Trump’s Election

    Jan 17, 2017Tamara Kharroub

    2016 was a tumultuous year for the Democratic Party. Democrats lost the White House, both houses of Congress, and a large number of gubernatorial races (two-th…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Turkey at “the Gate” of Victory at Al-Bab: What’s Next?

    Jan 12, 2017

    The New Year’s Eve attack in Istanbul represents a significant change in relations between Turkey and the Islamic State in Syria and the Levant (ISIL). Althoug…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantUS Foreign Policy

    Washington Rebalancing Away from the Middle East? Realities and Difficulties

    Jan 9, 2017Imad K. Harb

    In a speech to the Australian parliament in November 2011, President Barack Obama declared that the Asia-Pacific region had become a “top priority” in US secur…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantUS Domestic Politics and Elections

    Recalculating Route: America and Israel on Divergent Paths

    Jan 3, 2017Yousef Munayyer

    In May 2016, I wrote that the Obama Administration should carefully weigh options for how to address the Israeli/Palestinian issue during its last months in of…

  • Policy Analysis
    IranConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    After Aleppo: The Political and Regional Implications of the New Middle East “Troika”

    Dec 28, 2016Joe Macaron

    Since August 2016, new regional power dynamics have been emerging in the wars in Syria. The trend has manifested itself in the fall of Aleppo and the December …

  • Policy Analysis
    IranConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Sidelining Asad: Questioning the Future of Russian-Iranian-Turkish Convergence in Syria

    Dec 27, 2016Imad K. Harb

    The battle of Aleppo has finally been decided in favor of the Syrian regime and its Russian, Iranian, and militia cohorts. But for all intents and purposes, th…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    UN Security Council Passes Resolution Against Israeli Settlements

    Dec 23, 2016Tamara Kharroub

    On Wednesday, December 21, 2016, Egypt circulated a draft resolution calling for an end to Israeli settlements and demanding Israel to “immediately and complet…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Breaking Ground in Jerusalem

    Dec 22, 2016Yousef Munayyer

    Some things are utterly predictable. The sun will always rise in the east, rain will always be wet, and US presidential candidates who promise to move the Amer…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    What is Next for Turkey after the Fall of Aleppo?

    Dec 15, 2016Mustafa Gurbuz

    After the fall of Aleppo, Turkey’s capacity to maneuver in the region will suffer tremendously. Indeed, the fall of Aleppo has increased tensions among Syrian …

  • Policy Analysis
    Palestine/IsraelUS Foreign Policy

    Trump’s “Ultimate Deal” on Palestine/Israel

    Dec 8, 2016Tamara Kharroub

    In the first interview after his election victory, Donald J. Trump told The Wall Street Journal that he wants to broker a deal between Israel and the Palestini…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    The “Incredible” John Kerry: Ineffectiveness and Inconsistency

    Dec 8, 2016Yousef Munayyer

    It was painful to watch. Secretary of State John Kerry trying to explain and defend American foreign policy in the Middle East is such an uncomfortable sight. …

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    The Misplaced Hope of Lebanon’s Presidential Election

    Dec 1, 2016Imad K. Harb

    Developments in Lebanon during November 2016 made it increasingly evident that the election as president of Michel Aoun, former general and leader of the Refor…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantDemocracy and Governance

    Arab Issues Awaiting the Next President

    Nov 7, 2016Imad K. Harb

    Amidst the maelstrom that is the presidential election, American foreign policy has regressed to the uncomfortable and neglected recesses reserved for untoucha…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    End of Stalemate: A Loose Power-Sharing Agreement in Lebanon

    Oct 28, 2016Joe Macaron

    After a 30-month impasse that paralyzed the country’s governing institutions and questioned the legitimacy of the confessional system, the Lebanese Parliament …

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    The New Regional Order amid the Aleppo Rubble

    Oct 20, 2016Joe Macaron

    It became obvious in recent weeks that the US-Russian channel regarding Syria has run its course and can no longer be the bedrock of serious diplomatic efforts…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Colombia Peace Talks: Lessons for Palestine Policy

    Oct 13, 2016Yousef Munayyer

    After four years of painstaking negotiations, the 52-year war in Colombia between the government and rebels looked like it was coming to an end. Then, in one d…

  • Policy Analysis
    IranConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Hezbollah, Iran, and the Politics of Obstructionism

    Sep 23, 2016Imad K. Harb

    On September 7, Lebanon’s Parliament failed for the forty-third time to convene a session to elect a president. Since the expiration of former president Michel…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Doomed to Fail: Syria is not Ready for a Ceasefire

    Sep 23, 2016Joe Macaron

    For the second time in nearly six months, Washington and Moscow are striving to implement a nationwide ceasefire in Syria. The ultimate objective of establishi…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantSecurity and Defense

    New US-Israeli Military Aid Package Reflects Shifts in Relationship

    Sep 15, 2016Yousef Munayyer

    On September 14, 2016 the United States and Israel signed a new 10-year Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on military aid, which replaces a previous MOU set to…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantReligion and Politics

    Implications of Al-Qaeda Rebranding in Syria

    Aug 31, 2016Radwan Ziadeh

     The announcement by the top leader of Al-Nusra Front in Syria Abu Mohammed Joulani to distance his group from Al-Qaeda last month was very controversial.…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantRegional Relations and Geopolitics

    The US fatal mistake in northern Syria

    Aug 31, 2016Joe Macaron

     The moment the Turkish incursion into Syrian Territory began on August 24, the stage was set for a looming direct military confrontation between Ankara a…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantDemocracy and Governance

    Biden in Ankara enticing Erdogan to weigh his options

    Aug 24, 2016Joe Macaron

    Vice President Joe Biden visited Ankara on August 24 to salvage the remnants of US interests in Turkey. The July 15 military coup attempt left President Recep …

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantDemocracy and Governance

    The Week that Cut Turkey’s Ambitions Down to Size

    Jul 7, 2016Yousef Munayyer

    Although signs of policy adjustment have been in the works for several months, the events of June 2016 were an emphatic marker of a shift in Turkey’s foreign p…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    New Rules of Engagement for US-Hezbollah Arm Wrestling in Lebanon

    Jul 6, 2016Joe Macaron

    Lebanon is the only country in the Middle East where US policy is actively seeking to deter Iran’s regional influence. Washington is directly targeting Hezboll…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    The State Department’s “Dissent Memo” and US Options in Syria

    Jul 6, 2016Radwan Ziadeh

    On June 16, 2016, a dissent memo regarding Syria was filed with the Director of Policy Planning at the US State Department criticizing the Obama Administration…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Assessing the Potential Impact of the Paris Peace Conference: Vive la France or Forget Paris?

    Jun 4, 2016Yousef Munayyer

    One hundred years after the Sykes-Picot agreement, international stakeholders met in Paris on June 3 to discuss the outlines of an Israeli-Palestinian peace pl…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantUS Domestic Politics and Elections

    Why the World Shouldn’t Panic About Trump

    Jun 1, 2016Joe Macaron

    “Everything I say right now is a suggestion, I am not the President,” the Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump told Fox News on May 13. However, his …

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantDemocracy and Governance

    Lessons of Israel’s Political Shuffle

    May 20, 2016Yousef Munayyer

    The latest political move by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu is significant on many fronts. Yesterday the news was reported that Netanyahu had offere…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonDemocracy and Governance

    What Municipal Elections Mean for Lebanon

    May 17, 2016Joe Macaron

    Lebanon is holding this month municipal elections across the country, the first electoral test since the start of the Syrian war. The ruling traditional partie…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantInternational Law

    Navigating Pitfalls and Opportunities: Obama’s Parting Shot on Israel/Palestine

    May 17, 2016Yousef Munayyer

    President Obama, who gave his first interview to Al-Arabiya in 2009 and spoke again few months later in his Cairo address about Palestinian aspirations, is now…

  • Policy Analysis
    Palestine/IsraelConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    The Paris Initiative and US Middle East Policy: Paving the Way for the 4th Intifada – Why justice is the only roadmap to peace

    May 16, 2016Tamara Kharroub

    In the middle of the US presidential election season, France has elected to take the opportunity and break the US monopoly over the Middle East peace process, …

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantJustice, Equality, and Human Rights

    The Coming Change in US-Israel Relations

    May 10, 2016Yousef Munayyer

    The discussion on Israel at the most recent Democratic presidential debate is but the latest benchmark in progress down a road on which the American people hav…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Freedom of religion as a foundation of Arab democracy: An Arab view of the 2016 report of US Commission on International Religious Freedom

    May 3, 2016Tamara Kharroub

    The onset of the so-called “Arab Spring” in 2011 gave hope to millions of people across the Arab world that change is possible and that freedoms, democratic tr…

  • Research Paper
    LevantConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Time for Transitional Justice and National Reconciliation in Syria

    Apr 8, 2016Radwan Ziadeh

    Transitional justice refers to a group of activities or investigations that focuses on communities with a legacy of human rights violations, genocide, or other…

  • Research Paper
    JordanConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Jordan’s Azraq Refugee Camp – A Pictorial Essay

    Mar 25, 2016Priscilla Philippi

    When the conflict in Syria broke out in March of  2011, there was no indication as to the duration or the enormity of the ensuing humanitarian crisis.  Accordi…

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantDemocracy and Governance

    The Obama Doctrine from a Middle East Perspective: Orientalism, Inaction, Contradiction, and Lack of Accountability

    Mar 18, 2016Tamara Kharroub

    In a lengthy narrative collection of conversations and interviews with President Obama and others, journalist Jeffry Goldberg’s tedious tale of “The Obama Doct…

  • Policy Analysis
    LebanonIdentity Politics and Sectarianization

    Saudi Arabia Goes on the Offensive against Hezbollah

    Mar 8, 2016Joe Macaron

    Saudi Arabia’s explicit identification of the Iranian-backed Hezbollah as a strategic threat is a tipping point in the underlying tensions between both sides. …

  • Policy Analysis
    LevantUS Foreign Policy

    US in Libya: The Challenges of a Third Front against ISIL

    Feb 25, 2016Joe Macaron

    President Barack Obama’s Administration is considering the opening of a critical third front against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) in Libya. …

  • Policy Analysis
    IraqUS Foreign Policy

    The “Dos and Don’ts” of Defeating ISIS: Obama’s wasted 13-minutes

    Dec 6, 2015Tamara Kharroub Roxanne Perugino

    Giving his first Oval Office speech during his second term, President Obama addressed the nation on December 6, 2015 following the San Bernardino attack to rea…

  • Policy Analysis
    SyriaConflicts and Conflict Resolution

    Imagining a Conflict Resolution in Syria: Implications for US Policy

    Dec 1, 2015Joe Macaron

    The Vienna talks on October 30 launched the third international attempt to resolve the four-year-old conflict in Syria, proposing an end to violence “as soon a…

  • Policy Analysis
    SyriaSecurity and Defense

    Russia’s Middle East Moves and US Options

    Oct 15, 2015Yousef Munayyer

    BackgroundIn recent weeks, Russia has taken quite significant and surprising steps to deepen and strengthen its support for the Assad regime in Syria. Russia h…

  • Policy Analysis
    Palestine/IsraelUS Foreign Policy

    The Dynamics of Israeli Settler Terrorism and US Options

    Sep 15, 2015Yousef Munayyer

    IntroductionOn July 31, 2015, Palestinian homes in the village of Duma in the occupied West Bank were set on fire at night by masked assailants who left behind…

  • Policy Analysis
    IranRegional Relations and Geopolitics

    The Iran Nuclear Deal and its Implications for the Region

    Jul 31, 2015Yousef Munayyer

    The agreement reached by the P5+1 (China, France, Germany, Russia, the UK, and the US), the EU and the Islamic Republic of Iran over the latter’s nuclear progr…

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